By Taiping Chang

Background: The term “earmark” first appeared in English around 1591, when it was used in its literal and original meaning: farmers marking their livestock animals such as pigs or cows through a little cut or mark in the ear to identify the ownership. However the meaning associated with the term nowadays in the U.S. has become a major political metaphor. Earmarking means “to designate” or “to set aside” specific amounts of government funding for specific projects by U.S. congressional members.

The term “pork barrel” traces its origin back to the slavery era before the U.S. Civil War (1861—1865). In those days, slave owners occasionally gave out a barrel of salt pork to award their slaves for their good behaviors. After the Civil War, the term was used in a derogatory sense, referring to the appropriation of government funding for certain projects that are intended primarily to benefit particular constituents or campaign contributors.

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Tina: Did you know that the term “earmark” no longer is used in the context of livestock animals’ ownership?

Tom: I know. “Earmark” has become a political metaphor.

Tina: Did you know that congressional earmarks are used as guarantees of federal funding?

Tom: How does it work?

Tina: Well, when lobbyists, contractors or some influential individuals give big contributions to congressional members during their campaigns, they expect something in return once the candidates are elected.

Tom: So the elected politicians figure out a way to secure millions of dollars of federal funding for certain big-spending projects in return?

Tina: Exactly. Because earmarks are hard to identify, some members use them to secretly award political support from constituents and cohorts.

Tom: Do the earmarked funds need to be approved by Congress?

Tina: No, the funds are not subject to approval by members of the Congress.

Tom: How about oversight of the public? I mean public hearing or review?

Tina: No, it does not require public hearing or review either. Congress can award no-bid contracts at its discretion.

Tom: So as far as earmarks are concerned, there is no transparency or accountability in the system?

Tina: No.

Tom: I can’t believe it. How does it work then?

Tina: Normally this type of spending is inserted into non-related bills to direct funds to a specific project or recipient as incentives or awards for big campaign donors.

Tom: I assume the more powerful members of the U.S. Congress assign more earmarks for their supporters.

Tina: Indeed, and members of the Appropriations Committees in the House and Senate are in the best position to secure earmarks.

Tom: I suppose the secrecy of the earmarking process will encourage some unethical deals.

Tina: Not only unethical deals, but also some corrupt behaviors as well. Can you imagine how many billions of dollars would be wasted by some corrupt contractors whose work is not even regulated by the Congress?

Tom: How awful! Are “earmark” spending and “pork barrel” spending related?

Tina: Yes, “earmark” and “pork barrel” spending are often treated as synonyms, but they are not quite the same.

Tom: What are the differences?

Tina: Well, some say that an earmark is an objective determination, and the “pork-barrel” spending is a subjective expenditure.

Tom: I am not sure I understand what an objective determination or a subjective expenditure is.

Tina: It’s hard to explain. Let me put this way: one man’s pork is another man’s barrel.

Tom: Hmmmm, I still don’t get it.

Tina: Pork barrel spending is money being spent on something that’s not essential, but used to pay off a special interest or to “buy a vote” in the legislation.

Tom: So pork barrel spending refers to government spending that is intended to benefit a lawmaker’s constituent in return for his or her political support or vote in legislation?

Tina: Yes, that’s pretty much the way it works.

Tom: I have heard the expression “bringing home the bacon.” Does this mean that a lawmaker supplies his or her constituents with pork barrel funding?

Tina: Exactly. Both pork barrel and earmark spending are wasteful government spending, which cost tax payers billions of dollars each year.

Tom: I believe that the federal government should use tax payers’ money wisely and responsibly.

Tina: I could not agree with you more.

Vocabulary

earmark （在牛、羊等牲畜的耳朵上）打记号，作为识别的标记，后来引申作“指定”某笔款项的特殊用途

pork barrel 猪肉桶，即一桶猪肉，用来比喻政治上的“分肥”。指美国国会议员为了报答支持者的政治捐款，从各州的税收中拨出用于该议员地方福利的一笔款项

literal 照字面的，原义的

livestock 家畜，牲畜

designate 指派，选定

set aside 留出，拨出（金钱、时间等）

congressional （美国）国会的，包括由参议院和众议院组成的民意代表机构

derogatory sense 贬损的意思

appropriation 挪用，占用

constituent 选民；具有选举权的代表

campaign contributor 竞选活动的捐款人

political metaphor 政治上的比喻说法

guarantee 保证（契约）金

lobbyist （对政府官员进行游说的）说客

contractor （工程方面的）承包商，承办人

contribution 这里指的是政治方面的“捐献”

cohort 拥护者，支持者，同僚

oversight 监督，监视

public hearing 公听会。任何与公共设施有关的工程，在政府批准之前，都需先举行公听会，让老百姓不论赞成或反对，都能够就该项工程自由发表意见

no-bid contract 不经过投标的合同。一般想争取政府的工作项目，都必须经过投标的手续，但这类的合同，不需经过这道手续

at its discretion 自行决定，自行处理

transparency or accountability 透明度或职责

incentive 奖励，优惠，好处

assign 分派，分配

Appropriations Committees （专指美国国会的）拨款委员会

House 这个字要大写，指的是美国的众议院。全词作 “House of Representatives”，简称 “House”

Senate 美国的参议院

unethical deals （商业上）不道德的交易，这类的交易虽然不合乎道德规范，但并不一定触犯法律

synonym 同义字

objective 客观的，下句出现的subjective是其反义词，意为“主观的”

expenditure 支出，经费

bringing home the bacon 原来的意思是：把培根（一种熏肉）带回家。引申的意思是：成功地完成任务；给自己的家乡带来好处

（来源：英语学习杂志）